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Introduction
Aquaculture covers a wide range of activities, from raising
catfish in freshwater inland ponds to growing oysters in
offshore floating pens. Marine culture is often termed
"mariculture"; "aquaculture" usually refers to either
freshwater or both. Since the mid-1980s, aquaculture (both
fresh and salt water) revenues in the U.S. have tripled in
value, to nearly $1 billion annually.(1) The 1998 farm site
value of California aquaculture is about $83,000,000.
Shellfish account for $8-10 million of that.(2)
Historically, four types of commercial mariculture have been attempted along the shores of what is presently the Sanctuary. As early as the 19th century Chinese immigrants burned intertidal patches around the Monterey Peninsula to allow for red algal recruitment, which was then harvested for food. The 1960s and 1970s saw two short-lived oyster growing projects &endash; one at Pigeon Point and one in Elkhorn Slough; the latter eventually failed due to water quality concerns. A project to raise sea hares in holding tanks along the edge of Elkhorn Slough lasted about ten years. Abalone &endash; particularly red abalone &endash; was first maricultured in the Sanctuary in the 1960s at the Pigeon Point site that had been growing oysters. Another facility for abalone existed from the 1960s through the 1980s along Monterey's Cannery Row.
Mariculture within the Sanctuary currently consists of three abalone facilities: one in Davenport and two in Monterey (see details, below). The abalone in the pens are fed kelp that is hand-harvested from nearshore kelp beds.
Despite its glamour and the high prices for some products, aquaculture is "farming" and has similar pitfalls associated with its land-based cousin. Further, aquaculture is not a panacea that can replace fisheries with no side-effects, as many people believe. Aquaculture has its own suite of associated issues that need to be managed to ensure problems don't arise. Examples include competing uses of nearshore areas and resources to feed the species grown (such as kelp to feed the abalone) and the potential for contaminated or biologically detrimental effluent discharge and introduced diseases and parasites.
While the Sanctuary retains authority under its Management Plan to regulate aquaculture, it also recognizes the historical authority of the California Department of Fish and Game to manage that issue, and at the present time prefers to work through that authority rather than issue its own regulation.
-Aaron King,
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary
 At land-based facilities, abalone are grown in trough tanks like these. (Photo: US Abalone) |
Abalone are commercially farmed using two main methods. The first is at a land-based site where the animal is grown in trough tanks known as raceways. These sites must be located adjacent to the ocean and pump seawater into the facility. The second method is referred to as in-the-sea farming. Here, the farmer uses barrels or cages designed specifically for growing abalone.
All three of the registered abalone farms in the Sanctuary have been in operation for over eight years. Two of the three (Monterey Abalone Company and Pacific Abalone Farms, both in Monterey) are in-the-sea operations; the other (US Abalone, in Davenport) is land-based. The size and structure of these three farms range from a sole proprietorship operating with less than 10,000 abalone to a public company with over two million abalone and a dozen employees. These local growers actively participate in the regional tourism industry by supplying abalone to local restaurants. Local abalone are also shipped throughout North America and the world.
Abalone is rare among cultured animals in that every part can be marketed: the meat is eaten; the shells are sold for jewelry, ornaments, and souvenirs; and the viscera are processed and sold as fish food for the aquarium trade. Finally, the production of abalone pearls appears to hold exciting promise: a single gem-quality pearl may bring fifty times the price that the same abalone would garner if sold without a pearl.
Despite the promising potential of aquaculture in the Sanctuary, numerous challenges face entrepreneurs vying to start up their own operation. These include finding a suitable coastal site with good water quality, obtaining the necessary permits, developing the technology, obtaining substantial capital, maintaining the facility and animals, and the potential for user conflicts.
A recent study determined that only twenty-seven hectares of California's 1,100-mile coastline are currently used for aquaculture.(3) Less than two hectares are currently used for aquaculture (by the three companies mentioned above) within the Sanctuary, a number which is unlikely to increase much as there are very few suitable sites available for aquaculture.
Abalone farming is a relatively clean and environmentally friendly industry, especially where water quality is concerned. For example, at US Abalone, our water samples to the California Regional Water Quality Control Board for the past five years have consistently shown that the water we discharge to the Sanctuary is cleaner than the water we bring in.
As many of our state fisheries are in decline, we must examine alternatives to our traditional means of providing seafood. Aquaculture &endash; farming the sea &endash; is not the sole solution to our fishery problems, but it offers an important alternative to help manage many of our already overexploited marine species.
-David A. Ebert, Ph. D.,
US Abalone
Management of
Aquaculture
The California State Legislature has given authority over
the aquaculture industry to the Department of Fish and Game
(Department) and the Fish and Game Commission (Commission).
Further clarification is provided through policies and
aquaculture regulations found in the Fish and Game Code and
Title 14, California Code of Regulations. A simple
explanation of how these two bodies work together on
aquaculture regulations is that the Commission has oversight
responsibility for managing aquaculture and the Department
has the day-to-day responsibility.
The Department's primary responsibility in managing aquaculture is to ensure that it is conducted in ways that do not harm the state's native wildlife or associated habitats. Many other agencies also have a significant role in determining how aquaculture activities are conducted through their permitting authority. For example, the Department of Health Services enforces the Health and Safety Code sections related to the growing, processing, and marketing of aquaculture product for human consumption. The State Land Commission serves as a clearinghouse for land use agreements, which can include leases of state water bottom for aquaculture purposes (however, actual leases are approved by the Fish and Game Commission). The California Coastal Commission has oversight responsibility for development within the coastal zone and sees that the development of aquaculture conforms to Coastal Act policies. The State Water Resources Control Board determines if waste discharge requirements are necessary to ensure that aquaculture practices do not affect groundwater quality.
While not comprehensive, the list of permitting authorities also includes the U.S. Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the Department of Food and Agriculture. In addition, the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary is an active participant in the decision-making processes by providing comment on permit applications in those areas where it has a concern and permitting some facilities within the Sanctuary.
At the day-to-day level, the Department manages aquaculture activities through issuance of annually renewed Aquaculture Registrations. Within the marine environment, the applications are reviewed by a team of biologists, wardens, and pathologists to see that the specific activity will not have a detrimental impact on native wildlife or habitat. The Department's team also considers importation permit and broodstock collection permit applications from the same perspective. Finally, the Department inspects aquaculture facilities and shipments of products to ensure they are disease-free.
The many levels of permitting required to approve new aquaculture activity is a complex process offering considerable opportunity for public participation. Within that larger picture, the Department seeks to balance its interest in encouraging the development of aquaculture with its charge of protecting wildlife resources.
- Fred Wendell and Jerry Spratt,
California Department of Fish and Game
1 Fisheries of the United States, 1997 (NOAA)
2 Personal communication from Justin Malan, Executive Director of the California Aquaculture Association.
3 Susan McBride. "Current Status of Abalone Aquaculture in the Californias," Journal of Shellfish Research, 1998, vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 593-600.
Jen Jolly, Education
Specialist
Jen earned her M.S. in Marine Sciences from UC Santa Cruz. Her research has focused on marine mammal ecology and has featured sea otters in Elkhorn Slough and northern fur seals in the Bering Sea. Her past work experience includes teaching community college classes in general biology and marine biology and leading sea kayak tours in the Monterey Bay area. "After teaching in classrooms and out on the water, this position offers me a new way to get people involved in marine life and conservation," Jen says.
Susan Pufahl, Water
Quality Specialist
Before coming to the Sanctuary, Susan worked for the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, a state agency responsible for overseeing development around the San Francisco Bay and for keeping unnecessary fill out of the Bay. Her most recent work with that agency was with the North Bay Wetlands and Agriculture Protection Program. She holds an M.A. in Public Policy from UC Berkeley and has also consulted for several nonprofit groups and government agencies on water policy issues. When asked why she wanted to work here, Susan replied without hesitation: "Who wouldn't? This is a great place to be. I saw the job advertised and jumped right on it."
Karen Grimmer,
Education Specialist
"I've felt connected and attracted to the Sanctuary for many years, whether through diving, intertidal monitoring, or teaching the message of ocean preservation in previous jobs," Karen explains. She was an active member of the Sanctuary Education Panel through her previous position at the Marine Science Institute (MSI) in Redwood City. As MSI's Director of Education, Karen supervised its offshore and outreach education programs, including the "Discovery Voyages" program, which takes students out on the San Francisco Bay for hands-on marine science learning. Administrative Assistant Marilyn Mayo Retires Marilyn Mayo, our Administrative Assistant for five years, retired earlier this year. Marilyn was the glue that held the office together, helping manage everything from personnel to finances. "Coming to the Sanctuary as a long-term federal employee, Marilyn was instrumental in effectively guiding our program forward," says Aaron King, Program Specialist. Marilyn's retirement is well deserved, but she is missed around the office! |
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Last modified on: August 6,
1999